Posts
Operating System
An operating system is a software system. It acts as an interface between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. The operating system provides an environment in which a user may execute programs. The goals of an operating system are to :
Make the computer system convenient for users.
Make the efficient use of the computer hardware.
An operating system is an important part of a computer system. A computer can be viewed to have four components :
Hardware (CPU, memory, I/O devices etc.)
Operating system
Application programs (compilers, database systems, video games, business programs etc.)
Users (people, machines or other computers).
The Tasks of an Operating System
The most important task of an operating system is to process commands and to provide coordination between different processing tasks.
Processing Commands: The operating system interprets instructions entered through the keyboard. When one uses an application program, the program's commands are interpreted by the operating system.
Multitasking: Modern operating system allow to multitask, that is, to perform multiple tasks, at the same time with different programs.
Multithreading: Most application process data and commands sequentially, i.e., when one task is finished they begin another. The application therefore follows a single thread from the begining of a session to the end and individual operations are strung like beads on a necklace.
Multi-user Support: Some operating systems are designed so that many users can be connected to the system at the same time. Multi-user operating systems are also multitasking because the multiple users run their programs at the same time.
Multiprocessor Support: Some application need huge processing power. Some operating systems support multiple processors-in some cases hundreds or even more.
Miscellaneous Tasks: In addition to the processing tasks discussed, an operating system also performs the following tasks:
The operating system continually monitors the system and if it detects something wrong, it outputs an error message.
The operating system manages the use of memory and stop each programs in its own protected space so that a problem with one program will not affect others.
The operating system allocates peripheral devices for different tasks.
To conserve power, power management cuts power at those times when it is not needed.
Management file stored on disks.
Wednesday, May 19, 2010
Operating System's Features and Types
Operating System Characteristics
There are a variety of criteria, some of which can be used to compare operating systems. These are as follows:
Character-based or graphical user interface based
Single tasking or multitasking
Single threading or multithreading
Weak or strong security
8, 16, 32 and 64 bits processed at a time
Portable or not (a portable operating system is not dependent on a specific microprocessor.)
Proprietary or open (proprietary operating systems work only with one type of computer, open operating systems run on a variety of machines).
Types of Operating Systems
Desktop Operating Systems : Operating System that run on desktop computers are the least powerful and least secure operating systems. They are also the most common. Three common types are :
Windows,
Apple's System 8, or
Rapidly fading DOS.
There are a variety of criteria, some of which can be used to compare operating systems. These are as follows:
Character-based or graphical user interface based
Single tasking or multitasking
Single threading or multithreading
Weak or strong security
8, 16, 32 and 64 bits processed at a time
Portable or not (a portable operating system is not dependent on a specific microprocessor.)
Proprietary or open (proprietary operating systems work only with one type of computer, open operating systems run on a variety of machines).
Types of Operating Systems
Desktop Operating Systems : Operating System that run on desktop computers are the least powerful and least secure operating systems. They are also the most common. Three common types are :
Windows,
Apple's System 8, or
Rapidly fading DOS.
Tuesday, May 18, 2010
Features of MS-Excell
1. Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that comes with Microsoft's Office software package. Excel is a commonly used program in finance due to its ability to provide digital data organization. Excel has a variety of basic features that make it useful, even for new users who do not know how to use its more advanced functions.
Storing Data
2. Perhaps the most useful basic feature of Excel is the ability to store and organize data. Organizing data in Excel is as simple as selecting a cell in a spreadsheet and typing in the value that you want to store. A single Excel spreadsheet can contain thousands of rows and columns, allowing you to store huge amounts of data in one place. A single Excel workbook can contain many worksheets; each worksheet is a separate spreadsheet. This allows you to store many different data tables within the same Excel file.
You can create simple data tables quickly, and you can move to different cells using the "Enter" and tab keys or the arrow keys on your keyboard, rather than using the mouse pointer. You can erase data by dragging a box around the desired cells and pressing on the "Delete" key, while you can copy data to different parts of a spreadsheet simply by selecting cells and using the copy and paste functions.
Charts and Graphs
3. Another basic feature of MS Excel is the ability to create customizable charts and graphs of data. Creating a basic chart or graph is relatively simple; you must select a range of cells in the table, choose to create a graph, and specify the graph type. Excel can produce many types of graphs, such as pie charts, bar charts and line charts. Graphs are especially useful for presentations, and you can copy your graphs into MS PowerPoint slides. Formatting
4. MS Excel allows for a wide range of formatting options similar to MS Word. You can alter font size, style and color, and you can highlight cells with different colors to differentiate data values. You can also increase or decrease the size and spacing of cells to fit the data.
Formulas
5. Excel offers you the ability to enter mathematical formulas into cells to carry out calculations on other cells. Formulas can be simple or complex, and one formula may even refer to a cell that contains a value calculated using a different formula, allowing for multiple levels of calculation. Excel also has several quick calculation tools, such as column averaging and totaling.
Storing Data
2. Perhaps the most useful basic feature of Excel is the ability to store and organize data. Organizing data in Excel is as simple as selecting a cell in a spreadsheet and typing in the value that you want to store. A single Excel spreadsheet can contain thousands of rows and columns, allowing you to store huge amounts of data in one place. A single Excel workbook can contain many worksheets; each worksheet is a separate spreadsheet. This allows you to store many different data tables within the same Excel file.
You can create simple data tables quickly, and you can move to different cells using the "Enter" and tab keys or the arrow keys on your keyboard, rather than using the mouse pointer. You can erase data by dragging a box around the desired cells and pressing on the "Delete" key, while you can copy data to different parts of a spreadsheet simply by selecting cells and using the copy and paste functions.
Charts and Graphs
3. Another basic feature of MS Excel is the ability to create customizable charts and graphs of data. Creating a basic chart or graph is relatively simple; you must select a range of cells in the table, choose to create a graph, and specify the graph type. Excel can produce many types of graphs, such as pie charts, bar charts and line charts. Graphs are especially useful for presentations, and you can copy your graphs into MS PowerPoint slides. Formatting
4. MS Excel allows for a wide range of formatting options similar to MS Word. You can alter font size, style and color, and you can highlight cells with different colors to differentiate data values. You can also increase or decrease the size and spacing of cells to fit the data.
Formulas
5. Excel offers you the ability to enter mathematical formulas into cells to carry out calculations on other cells. Formulas can be simple or complex, and one formula may even refer to a cell that contains a value calculated using a different formula, allowing for multiple levels of calculation. Excel also has several quick calculation tools, such as column averaging and totaling.
Sunday, May 16, 2010
Database Management
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and the use of the database with computer as a platform or of an organization and its end users. It allows organizations to place control of organization-wide database development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user application programs to easily access the same database. DBMSs may use any of a variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs to extract information, user can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus, many DBMS packages provide Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs) and other application development features. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and use the information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency controlled, restoring database.
Saturday, May 15, 2010
The Communication
Process (System)
Meaning of the Communication Process
A process consists of a series of
interrelated steps taken one after another with a
view to accomplishing a desired goal. The communication process js similarly an aggregate of many steps or operations involved
in the transmission of a message. In
other words, the total number of activities performed one after another in the exchange of a message between two or more
persons is called a communication
process. Virtually, the communication'process begins when a communicator sends
a message (being developed and encoded earlier) and ends when a receiver (after receiving) understands and
provides feedback to the original sender.
Thus, a communication process more precisely may be denned as a system which consists of developing a message,
encoding and transmitting it (by a sender on the one side); the receiving and
decoding of the message, understanding and
accepting, and finally using the message and giving response (by the receiver m the other side). Barker (1981) defines the
communication process as, "A system
that involves an interrelated, interdependent group of elements working
together as a whole to achieve a desired outcome or goal" (P.6).
The communication process is cyclical. Upon decoding a
message, understanding same
and taking action, a receiver sends his/her own reaction to the original sender
a cycle thus is formed at least once. Megginson (1985) also holds the same
view. He reflects the view as, "Communication is a cycle of interrelated
stages that include (1)
an idea, thought or mental impression, which (2) is translated, encoded, or put
into symbols, which
then (3) are transmitted to someone else, who (4) receives them and (5) retranslates or decodes them
back into an idea. Yet communicating is not complete until there is some form
of response" (P.335).
Thus, we see that the communication
process involves the following sequence of events/steps : ideation, encoding, transmitting, receiving,
decoding, understanding and finally providing feedback (action). The steps
involved in the communication process are
displayed in figure 2.1.
The dotted spaces above and below
the figure symbolize barriers (noise, road block and so forth) that can take place at any stage in
the communication cycle.
Process (System)
Meaning of the Communication Process
A process consists of a series of
interrelated steps taken one after another with a
view to accomplishing a desired goal. The communication process js similarly an aggregate of many steps or operations involved
in the transmission of a message. In
other words, the total number of activities performed one after another in the exchange of a message between two or more
persons is called a communication
process. Virtually, the communication'process begins when a communicator sends
a message (being developed and encoded earlier) and ends when a receiver (after receiving) understands and
provides feedback to the original sender.
Thus, a communication process more precisely may be denned as a system which consists of developing a message,
encoding and transmitting it (by a sender on the one side); the receiving and
decoding of the message, understanding and
accepting, and finally using the message and giving response (by the receiver m the other side). Barker (1981) defines the
communication process as, "A system
that involves an interrelated, interdependent group of elements working
together as a whole to achieve a desired outcome or goal" (P.6).
The communication process is cyclical. Upon decoding a
message, understanding same
and taking action, a receiver sends his/her own reaction to the original sender
a cycle thus is formed at least once. Megginson (1985) also holds the same
view. He reflects the view as, "Communication is a cycle of interrelated
stages that include (1)
an idea, thought or mental impression, which (2) is translated, encoded, or put
into symbols, which
then (3) are transmitted to someone else, who (4) receives them and (5) retranslates or decodes them
back into an idea. Yet communicating is not complete until there is some form
of response" (P.335).
Thus, we see that the communication
process involves the following sequence of events/steps : ideation, encoding, transmitting, receiving,
decoding, understanding and finally providing feedback (action). The steps
involved in the communication process are
displayed in figure 2.1.
The dotted spaces above and below
the figure symbolize barriers (noise, road block and so forth) that can take place at any stage in
the communication cycle.
Elements of Communication Process
Essential Elements-(Components) of the Communication Process
Although a communicator, a communicatee and a message constitute the
basic elements of communication, the modem communication process includes many other elements. The elements included in modem day communication are briefly discussed below:
1. Sender (Communicator): The person sending the message is called the communicator. He initiates and makes the decision to be sent. In this sense, he is the intermediate source of information. A sender in the communication process irresponsible for selection of an intended message and encoding of the message. The sender initiates the message out of reaction developed in his mind from stimuli (eitherexternal or internal or both).
2. Source: In order for communication to take place, there must be a source of information. Although a sender is the immediate source of information, due ultimate source is stimuli. For communication to occur, the source must be there to generate information.
3. Stimulus: A stimulus, is something that causes a reaction in a plant or part of the body. It creates a need to communicate and hence there must be a stimulus for communication to take place. This stimulus may be external or internal.
When it develops in an environment, it is called an external stimulus. An external stimulus is an event or a situation that creates areaction with an individual. This reaction leads one to
communicate. The external stimulus comes to you through sensory organs - eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin. A memo or letter you just read, a presentation you heard of a meeting or a bit of gossip you heard over lunchare a few examples of external stimuli for communicating in business. An internal stimulus, better known as impulse is simply an idea or a strong desire to do something. This idea usually, develops all of a sudden within your mind without thinking about the results i.e. whether it is a sensible thing to do.
4. Filter: A filter is a piece of equipment or a device used to refine liquid, light, etc. Incase of communication, it is something that helps
a person to shape his unique impression of reality. We know that everybody's perception of reality is not alike. It varies from person to person. This variation
takes place because of the variation of the indivisual experience, culture, emotions at the moment, personality, knowledge, socio-economic status and a host of other variables. These variables act as filters to refine the message received. The filtration is done through interpreting the message received with the help of the above variables so as to derive a precise meaning.
5. Message: The next element in the communication process is a message. When the idea has been encoded, it is called a message. Thus a message is an encoded information (either verbal or non-verbal) which is communicated to the destination. It is the result of encoding. Information to be sent may or may not be factual - it may bean idea or opinion or a combination of both the fact and opinion. A message is very important element, because communication occurs if there is a message which, needs to be sent to the intended receiver. If there is no message, there will be no communication.
6. Medium: When the infonnation has been encoded, a sender is to choose amedium. A medium is a means by which something is expressed or communicated to others. It is also known as the forms of messages to be sent. The media for oral messages (through which messages are orally expressed) are conversations, telephone calls, voice mail, conferences, meetings and the like. Oral messages may also be sent even through such informal means as grapevines. Written
messages may be communicated through a letter, memo, report, newspaper, press release, e-mail, etc. Non-verbal messages may be communicated through gestures, facial expressions, body movements, dresses, etc.
7. Channel: Channels are the means (pathways or devices) through which messages are sent to the eommunicatee. A message itself cannot reach theeommunicatee. Naturally a sender is to send the message in the receiver's direction by placing it into a communication channel. Thus channels act as the carriers which carry messages from senders to receivers. Radio waves, telephone lines, television terrestrials are examples of channels. Sometimes channels and media are used in the same sense.
8. Receiver (or Destination): A receiver is a person or a body which receives a message. The receiver may be an individual or an organisation. After receiving the message the receiver decodes (interprets) the message
so as to give a precise meaning to the message received. In case of two-way communication, the receiver of the message provides feedback to the original sender of the message. Receivers' presence is inevitable for communication to take place. If a man
cries in a desert, devoid of human beings, to save his life, his message (crying) will produce no fruitful results as there is none there to receive the message (i.e. to hear the crying). So there must be a receiver on
the other side of the communication process to receive the message sent by the sender.
9. Understanding: The receiver must underst and the message passed on to himby the transmitter. Thus, if an English speaking person
addresses a Bengali speaking person in English, communication cannot take place, because the message is not understood by the receiver. Feedback is your audience's response. It is information
10. Feedback: Feedback is your audience's response. It is information about how the receiver is receiving your words. To get any
fruitful result from communication, it is to be ensured that the intended communicatee understands the message in the way the communicator desires. But communicating is not free from barriers. It may be hindered at any point (i.e., at encoding, transmitting, receiving, decoding) along the process line.
The process must be repeated in reverse so that the original sender can know what the communicatee has understood from the message received. This return (reverse) message is called feedback. Feedback is the only way to determine whether the decoded idea of the receiver corresponds with the idea the sender had in his mind. So feedback is a very important element for effective communication. However, feedback is not necessary for communication to like place.
From the discussion, it appears without any doubt that each and every element is highly essential to make communication
complete and effective. In the truest sense,
communication cannot occur in the absence of any of these component.
Although a communicator, a communicatee and a message constitute the
basic elements of communication, the modem communication process includes many other elements. The elements included in modem day communication are briefly discussed below:
1. Sender (Communicator): The person sending the message is called the communicator. He initiates and makes the decision to be sent. In this sense, he is the intermediate source of information. A sender in the communication process irresponsible for selection of an intended message and encoding of the message. The sender initiates the message out of reaction developed in his mind from stimuli (eitherexternal or internal or both).
2. Source: In order for communication to take place, there must be a source of information. Although a sender is the immediate source of information, due ultimate source is stimuli. For communication to occur, the source must be there to generate information.
3. Stimulus: A stimulus, is something that causes a reaction in a plant or part of the body. It creates a need to communicate and hence there must be a stimulus for communication to take place. This stimulus may be external or internal.
When it develops in an environment, it is called an external stimulus. An external stimulus is an event or a situation that creates areaction with an individual. This reaction leads one to
communicate. The external stimulus comes to you through sensory organs - eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin. A memo or letter you just read, a presentation you heard of a meeting or a bit of gossip you heard over lunchare a few examples of external stimuli for communicating in business. An internal stimulus, better known as impulse is simply an idea or a strong desire to do something. This idea usually, develops all of a sudden within your mind without thinking about the results i.e. whether it is a sensible thing to do.
4. Filter: A filter is a piece of equipment or a device used to refine liquid, light, etc. Incase of communication, it is something that helps
a person to shape his unique impression of reality. We know that everybody's perception of reality is not alike. It varies from person to person. This variation
takes place because of the variation of the indivisual experience, culture, emotions at the moment, personality, knowledge, socio-economic status and a host of other variables. These variables act as filters to refine the message received. The filtration is done through interpreting the message received with the help of the above variables so as to derive a precise meaning.
5. Message: The next element in the communication process is a message. When the idea has been encoded, it is called a message. Thus a message is an encoded information (either verbal or non-verbal) which is communicated to the destination. It is the result of encoding. Information to be sent may or may not be factual - it may bean idea or opinion or a combination of both the fact and opinion. A message is very important element, because communication occurs if there is a message which, needs to be sent to the intended receiver. If there is no message, there will be no communication.
6. Medium: When the infonnation has been encoded, a sender is to choose amedium. A medium is a means by which something is expressed or communicated to others. It is also known as the forms of messages to be sent. The media for oral messages (through which messages are orally expressed) are conversations, telephone calls, voice mail, conferences, meetings and the like. Oral messages may also be sent even through such informal means as grapevines. Written
messages may be communicated through a letter, memo, report, newspaper, press release, e-mail, etc. Non-verbal messages may be communicated through gestures, facial expressions, body movements, dresses, etc.
7. Channel: Channels are the means (pathways or devices) through which messages are sent to the eommunicatee. A message itself cannot reach theeommunicatee. Naturally a sender is to send the message in the receiver's direction by placing it into a communication channel. Thus channels act as the carriers which carry messages from senders to receivers. Radio waves, telephone lines, television terrestrials are examples of channels. Sometimes channels and media are used in the same sense.
8. Receiver (or Destination): A receiver is a person or a body which receives a message. The receiver may be an individual or an organisation. After receiving the message the receiver decodes (interprets) the message
so as to give a precise meaning to the message received. In case of two-way communication, the receiver of the message provides feedback to the original sender of the message. Receivers' presence is inevitable for communication to take place. If a man
cries in a desert, devoid of human beings, to save his life, his message (crying) will produce no fruitful results as there is none there to receive the message (i.e. to hear the crying). So there must be a receiver on
the other side of the communication process to receive the message sent by the sender.
9. Understanding: The receiver must underst and the message passed on to himby the transmitter. Thus, if an English speaking person
addresses a Bengali speaking person in English, communication cannot take place, because the message is not understood by the receiver. Feedback is your audience's response. It is information
10. Feedback: Feedback is your audience's response. It is information about how the receiver is receiving your words. To get any
fruitful result from communication, it is to be ensured that the intended communicatee understands the message in the way the communicator desires. But communicating is not free from barriers. It may be hindered at any point (i.e., at encoding, transmitting, receiving, decoding) along the process line.
The process must be repeated in reverse so that the original sender can know what the communicatee has understood from the message received. This return (reverse) message is called feedback. Feedback is the only way to determine whether the decoded idea of the receiver corresponds with the idea the sender had in his mind. So feedback is a very important element for effective communication. However, feedback is not necessary for communication to like place.
From the discussion, it appears without any doubt that each and every element is highly essential to make communication
complete and effective. In the truest sense,
communication cannot occur in the absence of any of these component.
Mail merge
Mail merge is a software function describing the production of multiple (and potentially large numbers of) documents from a single template form and a structured data source.
A feature supported by many word processors that enables you to generate form letters. To use a mail-merge system, you first store a set of information, like a list of names and addresses, in one file. In another file, you write a letter, substituting special symbols in place of names and addresses (or whatever other information will come from the first file). For example, you might write:
Dear NAME:
Our records show that your address is:
STREET
CITY, STATE ZIP
If this is incorrect,...
When you execute the merge command, the word processor automatically generates letters by replacing symbols (NAME, STREET, CITY, STATE, and ZIP) in the second file with the appropriate data from the first file
The power and flexibility of mail merge systems varies considerably from one word processor to another. Some word processors support a full set of logical operators that enable you to specify certain conditions under which information should be merged. Also, some merge systems allow you to merge data from several files at once.
Mail merge is sometimes called print merge.
A feature supported by many word processors that enables you to generate form letters. To use a mail-merge system, you first store a set of information, like a list of names and addresses, in one file. In another file, you write a letter, substituting special symbols in place of names and addresses (or whatever other information will come from the first file). For example, you might write:
Dear NAME:
Our records show that your address is:
STREET
CITY, STATE ZIP
If this is incorrect,...
When you execute the merge command, the word processor automatically generates letters by replacing symbols (NAME, STREET, CITY, STATE, and ZIP) in the second file with the appropriate data from the first file
The power and flexibility of mail merge systems varies considerably from one word processor to another. Some word processors support a full set of logical operators that enable you to specify certain conditions under which information should be merged. Also, some merge systems allow you to merge data from several files at once.
Mail merge is sometimes called print merge.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS, ESSENTIAL ELEMENT
Communication is the process of exchanging information and understanding from one person to another person. It provides a bridge of meaning by which people can share their feelings. The communication process has eight sequential steps which is shown in following figure.
Message
SENDER Develop Encode Transmit|Barriers :: Bridge of meaning |Recieve Decode Accept Use RECIEVER
Feedback for two-way communication
Figure: The Communication Process
[Source: J. W. Newstrom & K. Davis: 2002]
• Step-1: Develop idea: In any kind of communication at first the sender develop an idea which he/she wants to transmit.
• Step-2: In this step sender convert the idea into a message by using suitable words, charts, or any other symbol. Here the sender uses his/her own 'filter of concept' to develop the message.
• Step-3: Transmit: After encoding the message sender takes initiative to transfer the message to reciever. Sender also select proper media for the transmission of message.
• Step-4: Recieve: Here receiver receiver the message which is transferred by the sender. If the receiver do not receive the message then the communication failed.
• Decode: To understand the received the message the receiver need to decode the message. Decoding is the process of 'explanation of the message' which produce the meaning of the message. This step is very important for the success of communication because understanding of the message completely depend on it.
• Step-6: Accept: After decoding, it depends on the receiver whether he/she will accept or select the message. Acceptance mainly depends on the credibility of the sender and attitude of the receiver.
• Step-7: Use: This step also controlled by the receiver. The receiver can use the message immediately or in future considering his/her interest.
• Step-8: Feedback: It is the last but perhaps the most important step for successful communication. In this step the receiver responds to the sender. The loop of communication infact completes with the response of the receiver, which is known as feedback.
Whether the message is accepted or not can be realised by the feedback of the receiver.
• These are the steps of the communication process. It should be mentioned that there are some barriers in the communication process which can disturb whole process.
Message
SENDER Develop Encode Transmit|Barriers :: Bridge of meaning |Recieve Decode Accept Use RECIEVER
Feedback for two-way communication
Figure: The Communication Process
[Source: J. W. Newstrom & K. Davis: 2002]
• Step-1: Develop idea: In any kind of communication at first the sender develop an idea which he/she wants to transmit.
• Step-2: In this step sender convert the idea into a message by using suitable words, charts, or any other symbol. Here the sender uses his/her own 'filter of concept' to develop the message.
• Step-3: Transmit: After encoding the message sender takes initiative to transfer the message to reciever. Sender also select proper media for the transmission of message.
• Step-4: Recieve: Here receiver receiver the message which is transferred by the sender. If the receiver do not receive the message then the communication failed.
• Decode: To understand the received the message the receiver need to decode the message. Decoding is the process of 'explanation of the message' which produce the meaning of the message. This step is very important for the success of communication because understanding of the message completely depend on it.
• Step-6: Accept: After decoding, it depends on the receiver whether he/she will accept or select the message. Acceptance mainly depends on the credibility of the sender and attitude of the receiver.
• Step-7: Use: This step also controlled by the receiver. The receiver can use the message immediately or in future considering his/her interest.
• Step-8: Feedback: It is the last but perhaps the most important step for successful communication. In this step the receiver responds to the sender. The loop of communication infact completes with the response of the receiver, which is known as feedback.
Whether the message is accepted or not can be realised by the feedback of the receiver.
• These are the steps of the communication process. It should be mentioned that there are some barriers in the communication process which can disturb whole process.
Market Report
For Consumer Food Product Manufacturing Company
Dhaka, Bangladesh
[Country\Products | Pakistan | India | Nepal]
[Brcuits | 1000 Unit (Kg) | 5000 | 5000]
[Chocholate |
10000000/= |50000000 U | 1000000 U]
[Milky Candy | 5000000/= | 1000000 U | 50000 U | 500 U]
[Juice | 200000 /= | 5000000 U]
Signed by Vice-President
Marketing Company
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Dhaka, Bangladesh
[Country\Products | Pakistan | India | Nepal]
[Brcuits | 1000 Unit (Kg) | 5000 | 5000]
[Chocholate |
10000000/= |50000000 U | 1000000 U]
[Milky Candy | 5000000/= | 1000000 U | 50000 U | 500 U]
[Juice | 200000 /= | 5000000 U]
Signed by Vice-President
Marketing Company
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Using the Sum Function
Using the SUM Function
The SUM function in Excel is specifically designed to add values from different ranges. The SUM Function can be typed into a cell in Excel, or inserted via the Insert Function tool to the left of your Formula bar. The syntax of the SUM Function is SUM(number1,number2, ...). SUM is the function name, and contained within the brackets are "arguments", or the pieces of information that Excel requires to complete the Function. The SUM function allows from 1 to 30 arguments (number 1, number ....) for which you require the total value or SUM.
Using Ctrl to Mark Cells
If you wish to add cells that are non-contiguous (not joined together), type in your function =SUM( click in the first cell you wish to add. Hold down your Ctrl key and click in all other cells you wish to add up, then type in a ). Typing in a comma instead of selecting with your Ctrl key also works just as efficiently as well.
Using SUM to Add a Range from a Different Worksheet.
You can easily use SUM to add up the same range in different worksheets. Click in the cell you want the result of your addition in, then holding down the Shift key, click on the next worksheet that you wish to include in your calculation and highlight the range to be used, then click Enter.
One thing to note here however, is that if you insert a worksheet in the middle of the range that you have told the SUM function to add, then the same range on that worksheet will be included in your sum.
TIP! If you wish to force any new inserted worksheets to be included in the SUM range, try this. insert a blank worksheet at the beginning of your sheets in your workbook, and a blank sheet at the end. Now in the cell that you wish the result of your addition to appear in type in =SUM( and then click on the new first blank worksheet and highlight the range you require to be added in all worksheets.
Hold down your Shift key and click on the new last blank worksheet, then close your bracket ) and hit enter. Now hide the first sheet and the last sheet by going to Format>Sheet>Hide. This will force any new worksheets to be included in the SUM range as all new worksheets will be between the 2 blank ones.
The SUM function in Excel is specifically designed to add values from different ranges. The SUM Function can be typed into a cell in Excel, or inserted via the Insert Function tool to the left of your Formula bar. The syntax of the SUM Function is SUM(number1,number2, ...). SUM is the function name, and contained within the brackets are "arguments", or the pieces of information that Excel requires to complete the Function. The SUM function allows from 1 to 30 arguments (number 1, number ....) for which you require the total value or SUM.
Using Ctrl to Mark Cells
If you wish to add cells that are non-contiguous (not joined together), type in your function =SUM( click in the first cell you wish to add. Hold down your Ctrl key and click in all other cells you wish to add up, then type in a ). Typing in a comma instead of selecting with your Ctrl key also works just as efficiently as well.
Using SUM to Add a Range from a Different Worksheet.
You can easily use SUM to add up the same range in different worksheets. Click in the cell you want the result of your addition in, then holding down the Shift key, click on the next worksheet that you wish to include in your calculation and highlight the range to be used, then click Enter.
One thing to note here however, is that if you insert a worksheet in the middle of the range that you have told the SUM function to add, then the same range on that worksheet will be included in your sum.
TIP! If you wish to force any new inserted worksheets to be included in the SUM range, try this. insert a blank worksheet at the beginning of your sheets in your workbook, and a blank sheet at the end. Now in the cell that you wish the result of your addition to appear in type in =SUM( and then click on the new first blank worksheet and highlight the range you require to be added in all worksheets.
Hold down your Shift key and click on the new last blank worksheet, then close your bracket ) and hit enter. Now hide the first sheet and the last sheet by going to Format>Sheet>Hide. This will force any new worksheets to be included in the SUM range as all new worksheets will be between the 2 blank ones.
Friday, May 14, 2010
Features of MS-Excell
1. Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that comes with Microsoft's Office software package. Excel is a commonly used program in finance due to its ability to provide digital data organization. Excel has a variety of basic features that make it useful, even for new users who do not know how to use its more advanced functions.
Storing Data
2. Perhaps the most useful basic feature of Excel is the ability to store and organize data. Organizing data in Excel is as simple as selecting a cell in a spreadsheet and typing in the value that you want to store. A single Excel spreadsheet can contain thousands of rows and columns, allowing you to store huge amounts of data in one place. A single Excel workbook can contain many worksheets; each worksheet is a separate spreadsheet. This allows you to store many different data tables within the same Excel file.
You can create simple data tables quickly, and you can move to different cells using the "Enter" and tab keys or the arrow keys on your keyboard, rather than using the mouse pointer. You can erase data by dragging a box around the desired cells and pressing on the "Delete" key, while you can copy data to different parts of a spreadsheet simply by selecting cells and using the copy and paste functions.
Charts and Graphs
3. Another basic feature of MS Excel is the ability to create customizable charts and graphs of data. Creating a basic chart or graph is relatively simple; you must select a range of cells in the table, choose to create a graph, and specify the graph type. Excel can produce many types of graphs, such as pie charts, bar charts and line charts. Graphs are especially useful for presentations, and you can copy your graphs into MS PowerPoint slides. Formatting
4. MS Excel allows for a wide range of formatting options similar to MS Word. You can alter font size, style and color, and you can highlight cells with different colors to differentiate data values. You can also increase or decrease the size and spacing of cells to fit the data.
Formulas
5. Excel offers you the ability to enter mathematical formulas into cells to carry out calculations on other cells. Formulas can be simple or complex, and one formula may even refer to a cell that contains a value calculated using a different formula, allowing for multiple levels of calculation. Excel also has several quick calculation tools, such as column averaging and totaling.
Storing Data
2. Perhaps the most useful basic feature of Excel is the ability to store and organize data. Organizing data in Excel is as simple as selecting a cell in a spreadsheet and typing in the value that you want to store. A single Excel spreadsheet can contain thousands of rows and columns, allowing you to store huge amounts of data in one place. A single Excel workbook can contain many worksheets; each worksheet is a separate spreadsheet. This allows you to store many different data tables within the same Excel file.
You can create simple data tables quickly, and you can move to different cells using the "Enter" and tab keys or the arrow keys on your keyboard, rather than using the mouse pointer. You can erase data by dragging a box around the desired cells and pressing on the "Delete" key, while you can copy data to different parts of a spreadsheet simply by selecting cells and using the copy and paste functions.
Charts and Graphs
3. Another basic feature of MS Excel is the ability to create customizable charts and graphs of data. Creating a basic chart or graph is relatively simple; you must select a range of cells in the table, choose to create a graph, and specify the graph type. Excel can produce many types of graphs, such as pie charts, bar charts and line charts. Graphs are especially useful for presentations, and you can copy your graphs into MS PowerPoint slides. Formatting
4. MS Excel allows for a wide range of formatting options similar to MS Word. You can alter font size, style and color, and you can highlight cells with different colors to differentiate data values. You can also increase or decrease the size and spacing of cells to fit the data.
Formulas
5. Excel offers you the ability to enter mathematical formulas into cells to carry out calculations on other cells. Formulas can be simple or complex, and one formula may even refer to a cell that contains a value calculated using a different formula, allowing for multiple levels of calculation. Excel also has several quick calculation tools, such as column averaging and totaling.
Monday, May 10, 2010
SOCIAL v BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Points of Difference • Social Business
• Communication
DEFINITION
• Communication occured in a social setting is called social communication.
• Communication that takes place in a business world for organising and administering business is called business communication.
NATURE
• Social communication is relaxed, informal and often friendly.
• Business communication is more formal and organised.
SCOPE
• Social communication takes place in a setting. It starts from the very begining of your life. As soon as you are born, you start communicating with the parents and relations around you. Social communication continues till your death. At the end of employment life, it becomes inevitable and integral part of your rest of the life.
• Business communication on the other hand, takes place in a business environment. So its scope of operations is narrower than that of social communication.
PURPOSE
• It is usually concerned with pleasantries.
• Its main purpose is getting things done by the reciever.
APPROACH IN CHANNEL USE
• In social communication, certain channel e.g. a telephone line is used as an instruments for having a chat.
• But in business communication a telephone is a way to convey information quickly and perhaps cheaply.
CONTENT
• Social letters are full of personal news and are informal in languages and styles.
• Business letters contain only essential factual information and are much shorter.
USE OF SLANG AND GRAMMAR
• Social communication is unhurried. It uses slang and expressions understood on by small groups and it does not follow grammatical sentence structures.
• Business communication is carefully planned. It uses no slang and it should be grammatical in its construction.
RIGIDITY
• Social communication follows no rigid structure. Its expressions are quite spontaneous.
• Business communication follows a planned layout rigidly. Its expressions are also quite planned and composed according to clear objective.
• Communication
DEFINITION
• Communication occured in a social setting is called social communication.
• Communication that takes place in a business world for organising and administering business is called business communication.
NATURE
• Social communication is relaxed, informal and often friendly.
• Business communication is more formal and organised.
SCOPE
• Social communication takes place in a setting. It starts from the very begining of your life. As soon as you are born, you start communicating with the parents and relations around you. Social communication continues till your death. At the end of employment life, it becomes inevitable and integral part of your rest of the life.
• Business communication on the other hand, takes place in a business environment. So its scope of operations is narrower than that of social communication.
PURPOSE
• It is usually concerned with pleasantries.
• Its main purpose is getting things done by the reciever.
APPROACH IN CHANNEL USE
• In social communication, certain channel e.g. a telephone line is used as an instruments for having a chat.
• But in business communication a telephone is a way to convey information quickly and perhaps cheaply.
CONTENT
• Social letters are full of personal news and are informal in languages and styles.
• Business letters contain only essential factual information and are much shorter.
USE OF SLANG AND GRAMMAR
• Social communication is unhurried. It uses slang and expressions understood on by small groups and it does not follow grammatical sentence structures.
• Business communication is carefully planned. It uses no slang and it should be grammatical in its construction.
RIGIDITY
• Social communication follows no rigid structure. Its expressions are quite spontaneous.
• Business communication follows a planned layout rigidly. Its expressions are also quite planned and composed according to clear objective.
Reports, Business Report
Reports are one kind of managerial instruments which used to evaluate a situation. Even in the field of social science reports are basically prepared to explore the unknown and to provide guidelines for solving a problem.
The dictionary meaning of report is, it is a formal statement of the results of an investigation.
In the words of Dr. S. M. Aminuzzaman "report is a documet in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas, and sometimes making recommendations." Thus it can be stated that a report is a formal presentation of facts based on investigation which generally provides recommendations.
BUSINESS REPORTS:
Business reports are analytical vehicles which help managers to run the business smoothly. Business reports includes both findings and recommendations.
The basic objective of business report is to help the managers in making decisions.
In the words of Thill and Bovee, "when business people speak of reports, they are thinking of written, factual accounts that objectively communicate information about some aspects in business."
Prof. Ricks and Gow said, "a report is a written message presenting information that will help a decision maker to solve a business problem."
Therefore it can be revealed that business reports are management took which enables the management to solve problems and make effective decisions.
--------------------------------------------------------------
Ovi Mail: Making email access easy
http://mail.ovi.com
The dictionary meaning of report is, it is a formal statement of the results of an investigation.
In the words of Dr. S. M. Aminuzzaman "report is a documet in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas, and sometimes making recommendations." Thus it can be stated that a report is a formal presentation of facts based on investigation which generally provides recommendations.
BUSINESS REPORTS:
Business reports are analytical vehicles which help managers to run the business smoothly. Business reports includes both findings and recommendations.
The basic objective of business report is to help the managers in making decisions.
In the words of Thill and Bovee, "when business people speak of reports, they are thinking of written, factual accounts that objectively communicate information about some aspects in business."
Prof. Ricks and Gow said, "a report is a written message presenting information that will help a decision maker to solve a business problem."
Therefore it can be revealed that business reports are management took which enables the management to solve problems and make effective decisions.
--------------------------------------------------------------
Ovi Mail: Making email access easy
http://mail.ovi.com
Appointment, Joining Letters
• Appointment Letters
When a candidate is selected for an appointment, he/she is informed of this through a letter called an appointment letter. An appointment letter usually reflects the following points:
1. Words of congratulations.
2. The date and time of joining.
3. The name of the person to whom to report.
4. The nature of appointment i.e. probationary, permanent or temporary. If probationary, period of probation and if temporary, the expiry date of the temporary vacancy.
5. Salary and other benefits.
6. A request to the appointee to feedback acceptance.
7. Words of expectation that the appointee will have pleasant association with the employer.
• A Specimen of an Appointment Letter
February 14, 2010
We are pleased to inform you that you have been appointed to the post you applied for.
The appointment will in the first instance be on a temporary basis. It will be made permanent after the expiration of one year -in the light of your satisfactory job performance.
Your basic salary wjll be Tk. 9760.00 p.m. in the pay scale of Tk. 9500-200-
Tk. 12100.00. You are also entitled to a house rent allowance, medical allowance and other allowances applicable to you as per company's rules. We hope you would join immediately.
Please intimate us your
acceptance of our offer as early as possible and report for your duty in this office on or before 22 February, 20- at 10. 30 a.m. WSMook forward to our pleasant association with you.
Yours faithfully,
K.B.
Hossain Human Resource Director
• Joining Letters
After you have received the appointment letter, it is now your turn to inform the appointing authority of your decision as to accept or
reject the job. If you accept the offer of
appointment, convey the appointing authority the time and date of your joining.
When you join, do it by writing a letter (which carries the message that you are joining the office) to the authority concerned.
A joining letter covers the following
points:
1. A reference of an appointment letter.
2. A message that you are joining.
3. The position you are joining.
4. The time and date of joining.
5. A request to accept the joining.
• A Model Joining Letter
15 February, 2010
Subject: Joining as an Assistant Labour Relations
Manager
Dear Sir;
As per your appointment letter
No....... dated........... I am hereby joining the..............company
as an assistant Labour Relations Manager at 11 o' clock in the forenoon of the 1st day of July 20-. Would you please accept my joining.
Yours faithfully. M.A.
Zahid
Dear
Mr.....
In reply to your application dated 25 October,
20- for the post of an Assistant Labour
Relations Manager in our firm and subsequent interview on 10 November, 2010
When a candidate is selected for an appointment, he/she is informed of this through a letter called an appointment letter. An appointment letter usually reflects the following points:
1. Words of congratulations.
2. The date and time of joining.
3. The name of the person to whom to report.
4. The nature of appointment i.e. probationary, permanent or temporary. If probationary, period of probation and if temporary, the expiry date of the temporary vacancy.
5. Salary and other benefits.
6. A request to the appointee to feedback acceptance.
7. Words of expectation that the appointee will have pleasant association with the employer.
• A Specimen of an Appointment Letter
February 14, 2010
We are pleased to inform you that you have been appointed to the post you applied for.
The appointment will in the first instance be on a temporary basis. It will be made permanent after the expiration of one year -in the light of your satisfactory job performance.
Your basic salary wjll be Tk. 9760.00 p.m. in the pay scale of Tk. 9500-200-
Tk. 12100.00. You are also entitled to a house rent allowance, medical allowance and other allowances applicable to you as per company's rules. We hope you would join immediately.
Please intimate us your
acceptance of our offer as early as possible and report for your duty in this office on or before 22 February, 20- at 10. 30 a.m. WSMook forward to our pleasant association with you.
Yours faithfully,
K.B.
Hossain Human Resource Director
• Joining Letters
After you have received the appointment letter, it is now your turn to inform the appointing authority of your decision as to accept or
reject the job. If you accept the offer of
appointment, convey the appointing authority the time and date of your joining.
When you join, do it by writing a letter (which carries the message that you are joining the office) to the authority concerned.
A joining letter covers the following
points:
1. A reference of an appointment letter.
2. A message that you are joining.
3. The position you are joining.
4. The time and date of joining.
5. A request to accept the joining.
• A Model Joining Letter
15 February, 2010
Subject: Joining as an Assistant Labour Relations
Manager
Dear Sir;
As per your appointment letter
No....... dated........... I am hereby joining the..............company
as an assistant Labour Relations Manager at 11 o' clock in the forenoon of the 1st day of July 20-. Would you please accept my joining.
Yours faithfully. M.A.
Zahid
Dear
Mr.....
In reply to your application dated 25 October,
20- for the post of an Assistant Labour
Relations Manager in our firm and subsequent interview on 10 November, 2010
Friday, May 7, 2010
FormalvInformal Communication, Grapevine
Comparison between a Formal Communication System and an
Informal Communication System
The figure 6.1 presents a comparison
between a formal communication system and an
informal communication system.
Figure 6.1 : A Comparison of the Formal and Informal
Communication
System.
F
G
H
I
J
K
i
i
Indicates formal communication Indicates
informal communication
How the Grapevine
Operates (The grapevine pattern)
The
grapevine operates in different ways. Keith Davis who has extensive research work on the nature of
grapevine in organisations has classified it into the following four possible
types:
1.
Single Strand. The single strand involves
a long line of persons passing throughwhich information reaches the final receiver. For example, in this
chain, person A(Figure 6.2) tells something to person B, who tells it to
C, who tells D and so on downthe line, till the information has reached most of the
persons concerned. This chain islikely to be used to the transmission of information which
is confidential. But the chainis the least accurate at passing on information.
2.
Gossip. In the gossip chain, one person seeks
out and tells everyone the information.This chain is just like a wheel where the sender is at the
centre and the informationmom the sender at the centre passes along the spokes of the
wheel to other persons whoare stationed on the rim. Normally information of an
interesting but non-job-relatednature flows along these 'vines'.
3. Probability. The probability chain is a random
process in which individuals areindifferent about the receivers of the message; the
communicators tell people at random andthe people
receiving the message in turn, send this to others at random. This chain isgenerally used to transmit the information
which is mildly interesting but insignificant.
123
Formal Informal Communication
4. Cluster. Each
link in this chain tends to inform a cluster of other people instead of one person
only. Suppose, an employee A tells one selected person who in turn, relays the
information to selected others. In this way, as the information becomes older
and the proportion of the persons knowing the message gets larger,
the process gradually dies out and at this stage, the receivers do
not repeat the transmission. This network is called cluster chain.
Keith Davis considers the cluster chain to be the dominant grapevine pattern in
an organisatioa He thinks that only a few individuals called "liaison
individuals" pass on the information to people they trust or
from whom they would like favours. Information that is interesting as well as
job related usually flows through this channel.
Figure 6.2 : Types
of Grapevine Chains
A
B
C
D
E
Gossip (One tells all)
Probability (Each randomly tells
others)
Cluster
(Some
tell selected others)
Single Strand (Each person
receiving the message tells other)
Informal Communication System
The figure 6.1 presents a comparison
between a formal communication system and an
informal communication system.
Figure 6.1 : A Comparison of the Formal and Informal
Communication
System.
F
G
H
I
J
K
i
i
Indicates formal communication Indicates
informal communication
How the Grapevine
Operates (The grapevine pattern)
The
grapevine operates in different ways. Keith Davis who has extensive research work on the nature of
grapevine in organisations has classified it into the following four possible
types:
1.
Single Strand. The single strand involves
a long line of persons passing throughwhich information reaches the final receiver. For example, in this
chain, person A(Figure 6.2) tells something to person B, who tells it to
C, who tells D and so on downthe line, till the information has reached most of the
persons concerned. This chain islikely to be used to the transmission of information which
is confidential. But the chainis the least accurate at passing on information.
2.
Gossip. In the gossip chain, one person seeks
out and tells everyone the information.This chain is just like a wheel where the sender is at the
centre and the informationmom the sender at the centre passes along the spokes of the
wheel to other persons whoare stationed on the rim. Normally information of an
interesting but non-job-relatednature flows along these 'vines'.
3. Probability. The probability chain is a random
process in which individuals areindifferent about the receivers of the message; the
communicators tell people at random andthe people
receiving the message in turn, send this to others at random. This chain isgenerally used to transmit the information
which is mildly interesting but insignificant.
123
Formal Informal Communication
4. Cluster. Each
link in this chain tends to inform a cluster of other people instead of one person
only. Suppose, an employee A tells one selected person who in turn, relays the
information to selected others. In this way, as the information becomes older
and the proportion of the persons knowing the message gets larger,
the process gradually dies out and at this stage, the receivers do
not repeat the transmission. This network is called cluster chain.
Keith Davis considers the cluster chain to be the dominant grapevine pattern in
an organisatioa He thinks that only a few individuals called "liaison
individuals" pass on the information to people they trust or
from whom they would like favours. Information that is interesting as well as
job related usually flows through this channel.
Figure 6.2 : Types
of Grapevine Chains
A
B
C
D
E
Gossip (One tells all)
Probability (Each randomly tells
others)
Cluster
(Some
tell selected others)
Single Strand (Each person
receiving the message tells other)
Thursday, May 6, 2010
Solution of 3Hs in Market, Command&Mixed
• The solution of three "Hs" in Market, Command and Mixed Economy:
• Capitalist Economy/Market Economy: The first method is to solve these problems through market or price mechanism. That is, what goods are to be produced and what quantities, which methods for production are to be employeed for the productivity of goods and how the output is to be distributed, should be decided by the free play of the forces of demand and supply. In such an economic system, capital and other means of production are the private property of the individual and private enterpreneurs who undertake the work of production. Consumers have freedom to buy the goods they want. In such a system, those goods are produced mere for which there is greater demand and those goods are produced less for which there is less demand. The demand and supply of various goods determine the prices and quantities produced of various goods. This method of solving these capital problems through market mechanism is used by a free-enterprise capitalist economy.
• Command Economy: In this method, t'd solvition of upshots basic problems is not achieved through the free working of demand and supply of goods and factors. But to solve these problems which has been called by several names, such as planning commission, planning ministry or planning board.
What goods to be produced, and what quantities and how they be produced, how should they be distributed among the population and how much should be invested to bring about economic growth are all decide by the central planning authority. These type of solutions had been adopted by former communist countries such as Soviet Russia, Cuba, Poland, China, etc.
• Mixed Economy: The government interferes in in the working of the capitalist economy through several policy instruments because it has now been realised that the unfettered functioning of the market mechanism or the forces of demand and supply, results in wide economic fluctuation price instability and unemployment and lack of economic growth. In other words, with the free working or the market mechanism or the forces of demand and supply, the achievement of the objectives of economic stability, full employment and rapid economic growth is not possible. During 1929-33, when all the capitalist countries, there occured a great depression which resulted in wide spread unemployment among the population them famous economist John Maynard Keynes laid on the adoption of appropriate fiscal and monetary policy so as to achieve the objective of full employment. Therefore, economist call these so-called capitalist countries as mixed capitalist enterprise system or simply mixed economy. It is worth noting here that the nature of the mixed economy of Bangladesh is different from that as the mixed economics of America and England. In Bangladesh, Government not only regulates and controls the private enterprise and market mechanism through the monetary and fiscal measures and direct controls but also itself undertake the work of production. Various industries and power production have been set up in the public sector.
• Capitalist Economy/Market Economy: The first method is to solve these problems through market or price mechanism. That is, what goods are to be produced and what quantities, which methods for production are to be employeed for the productivity of goods and how the output is to be distributed, should be decided by the free play of the forces of demand and supply. In such an economic system, capital and other means of production are the private property of the individual and private enterpreneurs who undertake the work of production. Consumers have freedom to buy the goods they want. In such a system, those goods are produced mere for which there is greater demand and those goods are produced less for which there is less demand. The demand and supply of various goods determine the prices and quantities produced of various goods. This method of solving these capital problems through market mechanism is used by a free-enterprise capitalist economy.
• Command Economy: In this method, t'd solvition of upshots basic problems is not achieved through the free working of demand and supply of goods and factors. But to solve these problems which has been called by several names, such as planning commission, planning ministry or planning board.
What goods to be produced, and what quantities and how they be produced, how should they be distributed among the population and how much should be invested to bring about economic growth are all decide by the central planning authority. These type of solutions had been adopted by former communist countries such as Soviet Russia, Cuba, Poland, China, etc.
• Mixed Economy: The government interferes in in the working of the capitalist economy through several policy instruments because it has now been realised that the unfettered functioning of the market mechanism or the forces of demand and supply, results in wide economic fluctuation price instability and unemployment and lack of economic growth. In other words, with the free working or the market mechanism or the forces of demand and supply, the achievement of the objectives of economic stability, full employment and rapid economic growth is not possible. During 1929-33, when all the capitalist countries, there occured a great depression which resulted in wide spread unemployment among the population them famous economist John Maynard Keynes laid on the adoption of appropriate fiscal and monetary policy so as to achieve the objective of full employment. Therefore, economist call these so-called capitalist countries as mixed capitalist enterprise system or simply mixed economy. It is worth noting here that the nature of the mixed economy of Bangladesh is different from that as the mixed economics of America and England. In Bangladesh, Government not only regulates and controls the private enterprise and market mechanism through the monetary and fiscal measures and direct controls but also itself undertake the work of production. Various industries and power production have been set up in the public sector.
ROBBINS' DEFINITION:
ECONOMICS IS A SCIENCE OF SCARCITY
• Robbins not only criticised Marshall's definition and other welfare definitions of economics but also provided a new definition which if considered to be more scientific and correct. If has given this definition in his famous book, "An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science," which he brought out in 1931. (According to Robbins, economics studies the problems which have arisen because of the scarcity of resources. Nature has not provided mankind sufficient resources to satisfy all its wants. Therefore, the people have to choose for which ends or for which wants the resources are to be utilised. Thus, according to Robbins, economics is the science of scarcity and it studied how the scarce resources are allocated among their different uses.) Thus he has given the following definition: "Economics is the science which studied human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." This definition is based upon the following three facts:
• Unlimited wants: The first fact on which Robbins' definition is based is that man's wants are unlimited. In his definition 'ends' implies wants and for statisew wants the man uses resources. That man's wants are unlimited is a very important and fundamental fact of economic life of the people. If man's wants were limited, then no economic problem would have arisen.
• Scarce means: The second element which gives rise to economic problem is that resources are scarce in relation to wants. If the resources like wants were unlimited, no economic problem would have arisen because in that case all wants could have been satisfied and there would have been no problem of choosing between the wants and allocating the resources between them. Because the resources are scarce, all wants cannot be satisfied. Therefore, human beings have to decide for the satisfaction of which wants the resources should be used and which wants should be left unfulfilled.
• Alternative use of means: The third fact on which Robbins' definition is based is that resources or means have various alternative uses. In other words, the resources can be put to various uses. For instance, coal can be used as a fuel for the production of industrial goods, it can be used for running trains, it can be used for domestic cooking purposes and for so many other purpose.
• We thus see that Robbin's definition stands on the above-mentioned three facts, namely, unlimited wants, scarce resources and alternative uses of the resources. According to him, economics studies human behaviour regarding how the satisfies his wants with the scarce resources. According to him, economics is a human science and not a mere social science.
• Robbins not only criticised Marshall's definition and other welfare definitions of economics but also provided a new definition which if considered to be more scientific and correct. If has given this definition in his famous book, "An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science," which he brought out in 1931. (According to Robbins, economics studies the problems which have arisen because of the scarcity of resources. Nature has not provided mankind sufficient resources to satisfy all its wants. Therefore, the people have to choose for which ends or for which wants the resources are to be utilised. Thus, according to Robbins, economics is the science of scarcity and it studied how the scarce resources are allocated among their different uses.) Thus he has given the following definition: "Economics is the science which studied human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." This definition is based upon the following three facts:
• Unlimited wants: The first fact on which Robbins' definition is based is that man's wants are unlimited. In his definition 'ends' implies wants and for statisew wants the man uses resources. That man's wants are unlimited is a very important and fundamental fact of economic life of the people. If man's wants were limited, then no economic problem would have arisen.
• Scarce means: The second element which gives rise to economic problem is that resources are scarce in relation to wants. If the resources like wants were unlimited, no economic problem would have arisen because in that case all wants could have been satisfied and there would have been no problem of choosing between the wants and allocating the resources between them. Because the resources are scarce, all wants cannot be satisfied. Therefore, human beings have to decide for the satisfaction of which wants the resources should be used and which wants should be left unfulfilled.
• Alternative use of means: The third fact on which Robbins' definition is based is that resources or means have various alternative uses. In other words, the resources can be put to various uses. For instance, coal can be used as a fuel for the production of industrial goods, it can be used for running trains, it can be used for domestic cooking purposes and for so many other purpose.
• We thus see that Robbin's definition stands on the above-mentioned three facts, namely, unlimited wants, scarce resources and alternative uses of the resources. According to him, economics studies human behaviour regarding how the satisfies his wants with the scarce resources. According to him, economics is a human science and not a mere social science.
Microeconomics
• Microeconomics comes from Greek word Mikros meaning small. It deals with separate separate segments of economics. K. E. Boulding defines as "Microeconomics is the study of particular firms, particular household, individual prices, wages, income, individual industries, particular commodities."
Thus, microeconomics theory seeks to determine the mechanism by which the different economic units individual attain the position of equilibrium, proceeing from the individual units to a narrowly defined group.
• Microeconomics (from Greek prefix micro- meaning "small" +"economics") is a branch of economics that studies how the individual parts of the economy, the household and the firms, make decisions to allocate limited resources, typically in markets
where goods or services are being bought and sold.
Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviours
affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which
determines prices; and how prices, in turn, determine the supply and demand of goods
and services.
• Subject Matter of Microeconomics: Subject matters of microeconomics are clearly found from above mentioned definition. It deals with the economic actions and behaviour or individual units and small group of individual units. In other words, in microeconomics we make a microscopic stew of the economy.
Microeconomics discuss equilibrium of innumerable units of the economy piece meal and their inter-relationship to each other.
Microeconomics theory rudies the behaviour of individual firms in regard to the fixation of price and output and their reactions to the changes in the demand and supply conditions.
Efficiency in production, efficiency in distribution of goods among people and allocative efficiency.
These ante mentioned items mainly covered the subject matter of microeconomics.
Following Varialer Ones of Microeconomics:
Price of Rice
Revenue of a firm
Met invested of a firm
Thus, microeconomics theory seeks to determine the mechanism by which the different economic units individual attain the position of equilibrium, proceeing from the individual units to a narrowly defined group.
• Microeconomics (from Greek prefix micro- meaning "small" +"economics") is a branch of economics that studies how the individual parts of the economy, the household and the firms, make decisions to allocate limited resources, typically in markets
where goods or services are being bought and sold.
Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviours
affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which
determines prices; and how prices, in turn, determine the supply and demand of goods
and services.
• Subject Matter of Microeconomics: Subject matters of microeconomics are clearly found from above mentioned definition. It deals with the economic actions and behaviour or individual units and small group of individual units. In other words, in microeconomics we make a microscopic stew of the economy.
Microeconomics discuss equilibrium of innumerable units of the economy piece meal and their inter-relationship to each other.
Microeconomics theory rudies the behaviour of individual firms in regard to the fixation of price and output and their reactions to the changes in the demand and supply conditions.
Efficiency in production, efficiency in distribution of goods among people and allocative efficiency.
These ante mentioned items mainly covered the subject matter of microeconomics.
Following Varialer Ones of Microeconomics:
Price of Rice
Revenue of a firm
Met invested of a firm
Economics
Generally, Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce commodities and distribute them among different people.
Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Marshall's Definition
Political Economy or Economy is the study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisite of well-being.
• ROBBINS' DEFINITION:
Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.
Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Marshall's Definition
Political Economy or Economy is the study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisite of well-being.
• ROBBINS' DEFINITION:
Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.
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